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The play equipment present in children’s homes has previously been associated with their physical activity levels. This study aimed to describe sex differences in the play equipment found in Australian children’s homes. Data were from the Mothers and their Children’s Health study and the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health that included 5314 children from 2805 families. Families were divided based on number of siblings (only child vs siblings) and by their sex composition (all girls, all boys, mixed). For only children, this was further stratified by age. The percentage of families with each type of play equipment was calculated. Differences were determined through non-overlapping 95% confidence intervals. Play equipment was present in a higher percentage of homes with siblings than only children. For families with siblings, a higher percentage of homes with all boys or mixed sex siblings had bats/racquets/golf clubs and skateboards/ripsticks than homes with all girls, whereas skipping ropes were found in a higher percentage of families with all girls and mixed siblings than all boys. A higher percentage of homes with all girls had slides/swings than homes with all boys. For only children, there were no sex differences in play equipment for children < 2 years, 1 difference for children aged 2–4 years, and 3 differences for children > 5 years. Given that these sex differences could affect children’s physical activity levels, future research should consider these contextual differences to create inclusive spaces for children to explore their interests without having specific toys or equipment imposed on them.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Introduction
Physical activity is crucial for children’s general health and wellbeing (Carson et al., 2017; Poitras et al., 2016). However, gender differences in physical activity levels are apparent across the lifespan with women and girls continually reporting lower levels (Mielke et al., 2018; Ricardo et al., 2022; Tornquist et al., 2023). An analysis of adult data from 142 countries showcased that the prevalence of inactivity was 7% higher in women than in men (Mielke et al., 2018), while data on adolescents from 64 countries indicated that boys had a physical activity prevalence 1.6 times higher than girls (Ricardo et al., 2022). Moreover, recent research has noted that these differences may emerge within the first year of life, with boys already more active at 1-year-old than girls (Tornquist et al., 2023). Reducing the gender disparity in physical activity is an objective of the World Health Organization's Global Action Plan on Physical Activity 2018 – 2030, which is targeting a 15% reduction in physical inactivity by 2030 (World Health Organization, 2018). To achieve this aim, it is necessary to investigate the factors driving these differences at both a macro- and micro-level to develop interventions that promote physical activity equally for boys and girls.
The play equipment available to children has been associated with their physical activity levels (Delidou et al., 2015; Gubbels et al., 2012; Moss et al., 2019). A study of 175 children (aged 2–3 years) at nine childcare centres in the Netherlands suggested that certain pieces of play equipment, such as tracks and portable jumping equipment, were positively associated with physical activity levels, while slides, swings, and sandboxes were negatively associated with physical activity (Gubbels et al., 2012). Similarly, a study of 625 Greek students (aged 12 years) at 24 different schools showed that children in schools with a higher number of outdoor features (e.g., sport areas, green areas, recreational areas) had higher levels of physical activity (Delidou et al., 2015). This is further supported by a study of 4092 Australian children (aged 5–12 years) that found children with play equipment classified as active were more active than children with more electronic equipment or less active equipment (Moss et al., 2019). Children spend a large portion of their leisure time at home making it an important location for physical activity acquisition (Perry et al., 2016). Understanding the play equipment that children have at home throughout their childhood could provide valuable insights into differences between boys and girls, which could inform future research interventions and policy decisions.
A systematic review and meta-analysis found that children have different toy-preferences based on their gender and that these differences become more evident with age (Davis & Hines, 2020). Gender differences in play equipment are most likely multiply determined and affected by socialization from parents, siblings, peers, and marketing exposure, along with biological factors. Socialization theories state that behaviours and personality traits are developed through social interactions that emerge throughout childhood and across the life course (Hurrelmann & Bauer, 2018; Mead, 1934; Tinsley, 2002). These theories have been applied to sport and physical activity where parents can act as role models, provide support and encouragement, share their attitudes towards activity with their children, and foster active environments in their homes (Mutz & Albrecht, 2017; Pugliese & Tinsley, 2007). Specific to play, a systematic review by Morawska (2020) indicates that parents play differently with their children and choose different toys for their child based on the child’s gender. While many of the included studies in the review were published prior to 2000, recent studies have corroborated these findings (Boe & Woods, 2018; Dinkel & Snyder, 2020). Additionally, siblings could influence the types of toys and play equipment in children’s homes (Blazo & Smith, 2018; Macphee & Prendergast, 2019); however, this area is not well researched. A previous study noted that in 75 US families of children aged 2–6 years children with same-gender siblings tended to have more gender-typed toys, but this study included a small sample and focused exclusively on toys found in children’s bedrooms (Macphee & Prendergast, 2019). Further, a systematic review on siblings and physical activity experiences showcased that siblings were associated with physical activity levels and noted that girls with brothers report more occasions of playing sport than girls with only sisters (Blazo & Smith, 2018). However, this review did not consider the role of play equipment in their findings (Blazo & Smith, 2018). Finally, biological factors could influence the play equipment present in children’s homes with research demonstrating that prenatal and early postnatal testosterone exposure can be linked to sex-typical behaviours, including play (Hines, 2013).
Most of the current literature examining differences in play equipment between boys and girls has included small sample sizes and has not considered the family context (e.g., siblings living within the home). Further, most studies have used controlled laboratory environments where only certain toys are available for selection and children are often forced to make a choice (Davis & Hines, 2020). It is necessary to examine these differences in ecologically valid environments and in large samples of children. As many children live with siblings, it is also important to understand their play equipment in the context of their siblings. Our study aimed to describe sex differences in the play equipment in Australian children’s homes. Specifically, we aimed to 1) quantify the proportion of families that had different pieces of play equipment in their home based on the number of children and sibling sex composition, and 2) for families with an only-child, quantify the proportion that had different pieces of play equipment in their home based on the child’s age and sex. We hypothesised that there would be differences in the proportion of families with different pieces of play equipment. Specifically, we hypothesised that a higher proportion of families with all boys would own sports equipment compared to families with all girls (Davis & Hines, 2020). We also hypothesised that the number of differences in play equipment between boys and girls would increase with age (Davis & Hines, 2020).
Methods
Participants
The MatCH study recruited women from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health (ALSWH) who were in the cohort born between 1973–1978 and who, as of 2016, 1) had not withdrawn or died; 2) had consented to be contacted for sub-studies; and 3) had not reported infertility (Dobson et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2005; Mishra et al., 2018). Ethical approval for the ALSWH and MatCH studies was obtained from The University of Newcastle (H-076-0795; H-20140246, respectively) and The University of Queensland (2004000224; 2014001213, respectively). Mothers provided written informed consent for themselves and their children. In total, 3048 mothers completed the surveys on their three youngest children (n = 5799) aged under 13 years. For this study, children with no reported sex (n = 2), play equipment (n = 429), or sibling composition data (n = 54) were removed, providing a final sample comprised of 5314 children and 2805 mothers.
Measures
Children’s sex and age were reported by mothers. Unlike most studies on play preference that have reported children’s gender, MatCH asked mothers to provide their children’s sex as male or female and therefore, the results presented below must be interpreted in terms of biological sex. Children’s age was categorised as under 2 years (infants), 2–4 years (toddlers), and 5–12 years (children). Mothers reported the number of children aged < 18 years living with them, which may have included children not in MatCH. This was used to dichotomise children who were living alone and children who were living with siblings. Mothers also reported the sex of each child living at home, which was used to determine sibling sex composition categorised as all boys, all girls, and mixed sex. The play equipment available to children at their homes was collected using an adapted version of the Healthy Active Preschool and Primary Years survey with the following statement “Please think about the types of toys and equipment available at home for your child / children to be physically active with. Do you have the following in your home? (response option Yes, No)” (Hinkley et al., 2012). Play equipment at home included balls; basketball or netball rings; bats, racquets, or golf clubs; climbing equipment or suitable trees; bicycles, tricycles, or scooters; skateboards or ripsticks; skipping ropes; swimming pools; trampolines; slides or swings; and electronic play equipment.
Analysis
Data analysis was conducted in R (Version 3.6.2; The R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria). The percentage of families with each type of play equipment at home was calculated by sibling sex composition for families with siblings and only children. For only children, the age of the child was also included. Differences in percentages were determined through non-overlapping 95% confidence intervals (95% CI).
Results
In total, 2743 boys and 2571 girls from 2805 families were included in this analysis. The breakdown of families by sibling sex composition is presented in Table 1, while the breakdown of children by age and sex is provided in Table 2. Figure 1 depicts the percentages of families with each piece of active play equipment by sibling sex composition for siblings and only children (Aim 1). Most homes had balls (98.5%) and bicycles, tricycles, or scooters (97.6%), while fewer homes had swimming pools (28.0%) and active electronic equipment (47.7%). A lower percentage of families with only children had each piece of equipment compared with families with siblings (Fig. 1). For families with siblings, a higher percentage of homes with all boys or mixed sex siblings had bats/racquets/golf clubs and skateboards/ripsticks than homes with all girls, supporting our hypothesis that a higher proportion of families with boys would have sports equipment. However, there was no difference between the proportion of families with all boys and all girls for other sports equipment, such as balls or basketball or netball rings, which did not support our hypothesis. A higher proportion of homes with all girls and mixed sex siblings had skipping ropes than homes with all boys. Finally, a higher percentage of homes with all girls had slides/swings than homes with all boys; however, there was no difference between homes with mixed sex siblings and homes with all girls or all boys (Supplement 1).
Table 1
Participant demographics by family
All Boys
All Girls
Mixed Sex
All Families
N
741
645
1419
2805
Siblings
Only child
240 (32.4%)
234 (36.3%)
0 (0.0%)
474 (17.6%)
More than one child
501 (67.6%)
411 (63.7%)
1419 (100.0%)
2311 (82.4%)
Mother’s age (years)
40.3 ± 1.5
40.3 ± 1.5
40.4 ± 1.5
40.3 ± 1.5
Yard size
No yard
20 (2.8%)
14 (2.2%)
19 (1.4%)
53 (1.9%)
Small yard
108 (14.6%)
77 (12.0%)
92 (6.5%)
277 (10.0%)
Medium yard
404 (54.5%)
366 (56.8%)
771 (54.4%)
1541 (54.9%)
Large yard
208 (28.1%)
187 (29.0%)
535 (37.7%)
930 (33.2%)
Geographical area
City
454 (61.3%)
407 (63.1%)
810 (57.1%)
1671 (59.6%)
Inner regional
178 (24.0%)
156 (24.2%)
398 (28.0%)
732 (26.1%)
Outer regional or remote
109 (14.7%)
82 (12.7%)
211 (14.9%)
402 (14.3%)
Mother’s education level
Secondary school or less
84 (11.3%)
100 (15.5%)
192 (13.5%)
376 (13.4%)
Trade or diploma
170 (23.0%)
166 (25.7%)
327 (23.0%)
663 (23.6%)
University
487 (65.7%)
379 (58.8%)
900 (63.5%)
1766 (63.0%)
Mother’s country of birtha
Australia
689 (93.7%)
589 (92.1%)
1301 (92.4%)
2579 (92.7%)
Other
46 (6.3%)
50 (7.9%)
107 (7.6%)
203 (7.3%)
Demographic information for the 2805 families included in this analysis
aData missing for 23 mothers
Table 2
Participant characteristics by child
< 2 years old
2–4 years old
5–12 years old
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
Boy
Girl
N
161
151
534
447
2048
1973
Siblings
Only child
36 (22.4%)
45 (29.8%)
74 (13.9%)
64 (14.3%)
130 (6.3%)
125 (6.8%)
More than one child
125 (77.6%)
106 (70.2%)
460 (86.1%)
383 (85.7%)
1918 (93.6%)
1848 (93.2%)
BMI Category
Underweight
NA
NA
38 (9.4%)
49 (13.8%)
184 (11.0%)
187 (12.2%)
Normal
298 (73.8%)
236 (66.3%)
1240 (74.1%)
1101 (71.6%)
Overweight
54 (13.3%)
55 (15.4%)
186 (11.1%)
193 (12.6%)
Obese
14 (3.5%)
16 (4.5%)
63 (3. 8%)
56 (3.6%)
Outdoor weekend play time (hours)
2.5 ± 1.7
2.3 ± 1.5
4.0 ± 1.7
3.7 ± 1.8
4.1 ± 2.0
3.8 ± 1.9
Quiet indoor weekend play time (hours)
3.1 ± 2.2
3.0 ± 2.3
3.1 ± 1.6
3.2 ± 1.6
2.6 ± 1.7
3.0 ± 1.7
Participant characteristics for the 5314 children included in this analysis
Fig. 1
Proportion of families that have each piece of play equipment, stratified by whether the family unit contains siblings or an only child. Families are grouped based on whether the sibling composition includes only girls, only boys, or is mixed. Non-overlapping confidence intervals are indicated with an *
×
Figure 2 presents the percentage of only-child families with each piece of play equipment based on the child’s sex and age (Aim 2). There were no sex differences for pieces of equipment for families with children aged under 2 years. For children aged between 2 and 4 years, families with a girl had a higher percentage of skipping ropes than families with boys, but there were no other differences. There were sex differences for three pieces of equipment in families with children aged 5 years and over. These findings supported our hypothesis that the number of differences in play equipment between boys and girls would increase with age. A higher percentage of families with a girl had a skipping rope, and a swing or slide, while a higher percentage of families with a boy had bats, racquets, or golf clubs (Supplement 1).
Fig. 2
Proportion of families with only children that have each piece of play equipment, stratified by the age of the child. Non-overlapping confidence intervals between boys and girls are indicated with an *
×
Discussion
Our investigation using a large national cohort of children aged 0–12 years indicated that the proportion of homes with certain pieces of play equipment differed based on the sex and number of children within the home, however there were also many pieces of play equipment with no difference in prevalence. Families with girls were more likely to have skipping ropes and slides or swings, whereas families with boys were more likely to have bats, racquets or golf clubs, and skateboards or ripsticks. Our findings are similar to previous research that indicated that boys and girls play differently, (Graham et al., 2021; Kinzie & Joseph, 2008; Morawska, 2020; Veitch et al., 2021), but provides novel context of the home environment and consideration of the potential influence of siblings. Although, it remains difficult to discern whether these differences can be attributed to child preference, gendered parenting, or a combination of these factors as studies on older children tend to focus on child preference (Graham et al., 2021; Kinzie & Joseph, 2008; Veitch et al., 2021), while studies on infants and pre-schoolers are predominately focused on the role of parents (Macphee & Prendergast, 2019; Morawska, 2020). When examining children’s preferences, previous studies in parks and schools have determined that boys prefer sports areas, competition, and skateparks, while girls prefer swings, grassy areas, creative play, and social interactions (Duncombe et al., 2023; Graham et al., 2021; Kinzie & Joseph, 2008; Veitch et al., 2021). These findings are further corroborated by a study that interviewed fifty 10–13 year-old girls who expressed they were more interested in play facilities that included trampolines, skipping ropes, and gymnastic equipment compared with traditional schoolyards with sports equipment and sports grounds (Pawlowski et al., 2019).
With regard to parenting roles, a systematic review from 2020 provides evidence that differences in toy and play preferences may be due to gendered parenting, noting that parents provided different toys to their children and engaged in different types of play depending on the child’s gender (Morawska). A study from 2019 determined that even though there had been a cultural shift towards more egalitarian attitudes in the last 40 years, bedrooms of preschool children were still gendered (Macphee & Prendergast). However, the authors noted that this did not appear related to parents’ expressivity, but could be related to the preschool environment, the presence of same-gender siblings, or messaging from toy companies (Macphee & Prendergast, 2019). They recommend advocating for less gendered toy marketing and preschool environments to promote gender-neutral spaces from an early age (Macphee & Prendergast, 2019). Furthering our understanding of why these differences in play equipment are present through qualitative studies focused on understanding both child and parent preferences should be considered in the future.
Regardless of whether these differences in play equipment occur due to child preference or gendered parenting, they may have possible implications for physical activity levels, which will be important to understand in order to reduce the gender disparity in physical activity as outlined by the World Health Organization (2018). Previous research has determined that active pieces of equipment are associated with higher levels of physical activity (Gubbels et al., 2012; Moss et al., 2019). Higher levels of physical activity are beneficial for health with strong evidence indicating that physical activity can improve cardiovascular health, mental health, and wellbeing in children (Carson et al., 2017; Poitras et al., 2016). Therefore, interventions aimed at increasing physical activity levels need to consider these contextual differences in play instead of applying a one-size fits all approach, and consider interventions tailored to the priority populations. This could include interventions focused on only children, girls, or ensuring that children’s preferred active style equipment is available to them in their different environments. A systematic review noted a greater proportion of gender-targeted than gender-neutral interventions were effective at improving physical activity outcomes (Sharkey et al., 2020). The authors postulated that a gender-targeted approach may be more beneficial due to the different motivators and barriers for activity between genders in addition to their different intervention preferences (Sharkey et al., 2020). While this review focused on a young adult population, children also have different motivators and barriers for activity based on gender, and previous research has also suggested that strategies for active play may benefit from being tailored to gender (Brockman et al., 2011).
The composition of siblings in a family and its influence on play equipment and physical activity levels is another important consideration. The findings from our study indicate that the proportion of families with bats, racquets, or golf clubs was no different for families with mixed sex siblings compared to families with only boys. Similarly, there was no difference in the proportion of families with a skipping rope when comparing families with only girls and families with mixed sex siblings, indicating that a single child of one sex may influence the equipment in a home. Two systematic reviews investigating the relationship between siblings and physical activity reported that children with siblings are more physically active than only children (Blazo & Smith, 2018; Kracht & Sisson, 2018). However, the authors noted that the association between physical activity and the composition of siblings lacks consistent findings, which could be an important area for future studies (Blazo & Smith, 2018). Our data also indicated that the number of differences in play equipment increased as children age. This is supported by a systematic review and meta-analysis on toy preference that showcased gender-specific preference increased significantly with child age and that preference for neutral toys decreased significantly with child age (Davis & Hines, 2020). This increase in the number of differences could be explained through socialization pressures that encourage children to use specific play equipment or by children’s early social environments that could amplify gender-type activities through selection of playmates (Martin et al., 2013; Mutz & Albrecht, 2017).
The lack of differences between families with boys and girls for some of the pieces of play equipment were surprising based on previous literature (Cherney, 2018). For example, the proportion of all girl families with balls and active electronic games was 98 and 43%, respectively. These numbers were comparable to the 99 and 43% of all boy families. This is a promising finding as toys linked with movement tend to be associated with boys (Cherney, 2018) and ensuring girls have access to these types of active toys could augment their physical activity levels (Gubbels et al., 2012; Moss et al., 2019). However, future research investigating how these toys are used will be important as previous research indicates that girls and boys can use the same toy in different ways (Cherney, 2018).
Strengths and Limitations
Our study investigated sex differences in play equipment within the home environment in a large national cohort. It includes family level data and focuses on sibling composition instead of treating each child as an individual entity. However, it does have some limitations that must be acknowledged. Due to the cross-sectional design of this study, we cannot investigate changes in play equipment over time. Also, as mothers only reported on 11 types of play equipment, it is possible that a more comprehensive list of equipment could have provided further insights into sex differences. Additionally, the use of this equipment by children requires future investigation as currently, we are only able to discuss differences in the presence of the equipment, which could be due to a different family member using the equipment, or a previous hobby that is no longer completed by the child. The subset of women in the MatCH cohort were from a restricted age range (25–43 years), which may introduce bias as the socioeconomic and health characteristics of these women are different to women who give birth at a young age (Mishra et al., 2018). Further, this subset of women was predominately born in Australia (93%), which may also limit the generalisability of our findings. For our analyses, we used non-overlapping confidence intervals as a conservative approach to noting differences in the proportion of families instead of conducting an individual test for each piece of play equipment with the risk of false positive results (Greenland et al., 2016). However, this did not enable us to control for socioeconomic status, ethnicity, or other covariates. There may be variations in the play equipment available in homes based on ethnicity and socioeconomic status, but these have not been widely considered in the gender-related toy preference literature as most studies have occurred in countries similar in terms of industrialisation, wealth, education, and gender equality (Davis & Hines, 2020). Socioeconomic status and ethnicity have also previously been associated with physical activity levels in children (Sterdt et al., 2013) and future research should consider including a diverse sample of participants to investigate the influence of these covariates on play equipment within children’s homes. Lastly, due to the nature of this survey, we cannot conclude whether differences in play equipment are due to child preference or decisions made by parents on behalf of their child(ren), which will be important to understand for future interventions aimed at targeting play equipment in this setting.
Conclusions
Our study provides evidence that there are sex differences in the play equipment found in the homes of Australian children. For example, families with boys were more likely to have bats, racquets, and golf clubs, while girls were more likely to have skipping ropes, slides, and swings. These differences appear to increase with age and could affect children’s physical activity levels. It will be important for future research to investigate physical activity levels based on family composition, to consider additional explanations for these differences in play equipment such as socioeconomic status and ethnicity, and for future interventions to consider these differences during their design phase instead of using a one-size fits all approach.
Availability of Supporting Data
ALSWH survey data are owned by the Australian Government Department of Health and due to the personal nature of the data collected, release by ALSWH is subject to strict contractual and ethical restrictions. Ethical review of ALSWH is by the Human Research Ethics Committees at The University of Queensland and The University of Newcastle. De-identified data are available to collaborating researchers where a formal request to make use of the material has been approved by the ALSWH Data Access Committee. The committee is receptive of requests for datasets required to replicate results. Information on applying for ALSWH data is available from https://alswh.org.au/for-data-users/applying-for-data/.
The research on which this paper is based was conducted as part of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health (ALSWH) by the University of Queensland and the University of Newcastle. We are grateful to the Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care for funding ALSWH; the National Health and Medical Research Council for funding the Mothers and their Children’s Health (MatCH) Substudy; and to the women who provided the survey data.
Author Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Data analysis was performed by Stephanie L Duncombe. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Stephanie L Duncombe and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Compliance with ethical standards
Ethics Approval
Ethical approval for the ALSWH and MatCH studies was obtained from The University of Newcastle (H-076-0795; H-20140246, respectively) and The University of Queensland (2004000224; 2014001213, respectively). This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.
Consent
All mothers consented to take part in MatCH and are free to withdraw or suspend their participation at any time with no need to provide a reason.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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