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Meta-autobiographical Remembering Questionnaire (MARQ): Metacognitive Beliefs About Voluntary and Involuntary Negative and Positive Autobiographical Memories
Metacognitive prediction of autobiographical remembering has long been overlooked. However, expected costs such as emotion dysregulation caused by negative memory recall and expected benefits such as improving mood induced by positive memory recall can affect autobiographical remembering. Such anticipations may contribute to abnormalities in autobiographical memory associated with emotional disorders, but those assessment tools have not yet been developed.
Method
In Study 1, we developed a self-report questionnaire MARQ (Meta-Autobiographical Remembering Questionnaire) in Japanese and examined its structural validity. In Study 2, test–retest reliability was assessed, and in Study 3, the convergent validity was tested. In Studies 4 and 5, we developed the English version of the MARQ, and tested its reliability and validity. In both versions, the MARQ consists of six factors: (a) emotion dysregulation and (b) avoidance of negative involuntary retrieval, (c) emotion dysregulation and (d) avoidance of negative voluntary retrieval, and (e) difficulty and (f) emotion dysregulation in positive voluntary retrieval.
Results
Across five studies, we confirmed the reliability and validity for the original Japanese version and translated English version. Convergent validation showed that these factors were related to depressive symptoms and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and related cognitive processes. The results highlighted reduced expected benefits and increased expected costs of autobiographical remembering in individuals with higher levels of depressive symptoms and PTSS.
Conclusion
Emotion dysregulation and avoidance of involuntary negative memories may generalize to voluntary memory, and the assessment and intervention focusing on these processes would inform transdiagnostic approaches based on memory research.
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Introduction
Abnormalities in autobiographical remembering characterize emotional disorders. Literature has demonstrated that emotional disorders, in particular individuals with major depression show a decrease in recalling positive memory, an increase in recalling negative (intrusive) memory, overgeneral memory (OGM), and altered emotion regulation strategies, including increased suppression and avoidance when recollecting autobiographical memories (Barry et al., 2021; Dalgleish & Werner-Seidler, 2014; Williams et al., 2007). These abnormalities in autobiographical memory are not unrelated to metacognitions of autobiographical recollection (King et al., 2023). Meta-autobiographical memory is defined as metacognitive knowledge about what autobiographical memory is, how it functions and what factors influence memories coming to mind (Wang et al., 2015). In a clinical context, metacognition or prediction that remembering a negative memory makes one feel bad may lead to an avoidant or repressive coping strategy for autobiographical remembering (Geraerts et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2007). Such strategies may actually reduce voluntary retrieval of negative specific memories, which manifests as OGM (Matsumoto, 2024).
While research on (non-autobiographical) meta-memory is developing (Nelson & Narens, 1990), surprisingly little research has extended this to autobiographical memory and its abnormalities. A number of researchers have argued that meta-autobiographical memory affects memory retrieval (King et al., 2023; Matsumoto, 2024; Scoboria et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2015). Nonetheless, the conceptualization of meta-autobiographical memory and the measurement scale of its individual differences, particularly in a clinical context, have not yet been explored.
Traditional meta-memory theory (Nelson & Narens, 1990) divides information processing into meta- and object-levels, where mutual information flow supports memory encoding and retrieval. The meta-level monitors object-level processing and controls memory strategies. For instance, a meta-level judgment such as “this event is worth sharing” guides object-level processing using mnemonic strategies (e.g., deep encoding) for events such as “being accepted into university.” The latest meta-memory theory (Callaway et al., 2023) frames retrieval as a cost–benefit decision making process. Retrieval continues if benefits outweigh costs and ceases when costs exceed benefits.
Expected costs and expected benefits can be specified in diverse contexts. In the context of autobiographical remembering, expected costs may include cognitive effort required to retrieve, emotional strain (negative affect) triggered by memory retrieval, and the anticipated states that persist after retrieval (e.g., the memory is stuck in mind and cannot be controlled). Expected benefits could include the task accomplishment by the retrieval, emotional gains (positive affect) triggered by memory retrieval, and the functional aspects of the memory depending on the context (i.e., informational value).
In the following sections, we formulate maladaptive metacognitions and predictions for autobiographical remembering from clinical perspectives.
Metacognitive Beliefs About Negative Memory Recall
Unwanted intrusive memories and images that occur involuntarily are well-known transdiagnostic markers of emotional disorders including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression (Brewin et al., 2010). Compared to voluntary memories, involuntary memories evoke a stronger negative impact on emotions and physical reactions (Watson et al., 2012). In particular, individuals with depression experience greater distress and negative emotions such as sadness and helplessness related to involuntary memories (Matsumoto et al., 2023; Newby & Moulds, 2011a; Watson et al., 2013; for a review, Shan et al., 2025). Additionally, emotion regulation strategies such as worry, negative interpretation and brooding have been associated with involuntary memory retrieval in these groups (Shan et al., 2023; Isham et al., 2020; del Palacio-Gonzalez & Berntsen, 2017). Intrusive memories and avoidance of stressful (traumatic) memories also prospectively predict depressive symptom severity (Brewin et al., 1999).
Several previous studies have examined metacognitive monitoring and control of intrusive memories. Response to Intrusion Questionnaire (RIQ; Clohessy & Ehlers, 1999) measures what coping strategies people are likely to use in response to intrusive memories. Newby and Moulds (2010) used questions measuring metacognitive appraisal, such as the extent to which intrusive memories represent psychological problems and are associated with negative external consequences (but they did not test for reliability and validity). In addition, Newby and Moulds (2011b) showed that dysregulation and distress of intrusive memories, as measured by interviews, predicted depressive symptom severity six months later. They also suggest that depressed patients strive to prevent intrusive memories through avoidance and safety behaviors (Newby & Moulds, 2010, 2011a). Thus, emotion dysregulation for intrusive memories and avoidance of intrusive memories are strongly associated with depressive symptoms. Yet, no scales have been developed to measure expected emotion dysregulation due to involuntary memory and avoidance of involuntary memory. The measures of posttraumatic stress symptoms, such as the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5; Weathers et al., 2013) and Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R; Weiss & Marmar, 1997), assess emotions associated with intrusions and avoidance of those intrusive memories of specific traumatic events in a past-oriented manner, but general and future-oriented prediction has not been examined.
We shed light on metacognitive beliefs about voluntary memory in addition to involuntary memory. The tendency to show difficulty in voluntary retrieval of specific memories occurred at a particular time and place, termed reduced autobiographical memory specificity or OGM (Williams et al., 2007), is a transdiagnostic feature of psychiatric disorders with the exception of anxiety. OGM is known to prospectively predict worsening depression (Hallford et al., 2021; Sumner et al., 2010). Researchers have focused on the mechanisms underlying the occurrence of OGM (Dalgleish & Hitchcock, 2023; Sumner, 2012; Williams et al., 2007). Among possible mechanisms of OGM, the functional avoidance hypothesis (or affect regulation hypothesis) has long been examined (Sumner, 2012; Williams, 1996; Williams et al., 2007). The functional avoidance hypothesis regards OGM as the product of avoidance of retrieving specific negative or traumatic events to regulate emotions because of anticipating negative emotions induced by these memories. Some experimental evidence for this hypothesis has been demonstrated (Hermans et al., 2008; Raes et al., 2003), but surprisingly, there are no direct measures of metacognitive beliefs about such negative voluntary memories.
Prediction of emotional dysregulation and avoidance in voluntary memory may be shaped by involuntary memory. This could be explained as a generalization of anticipations learned through experiences of involuntary memory. Associative retrieval, including involuntary memory, is a basic retrieval mode in daily life (Berntsen, 2010). The prediction of emotion dysregulation and avoidance in voluntary memory could be formed on the basis of high-frequency experience of intrusions with strong emotional arousal and efforts to avoid these intrusions. Furthermore, avoidance of voluntary memory may be maintained without confirming the fact whether strong emotions are aroused in voluntary memory (i.e., negatively reinforced). The generalization of these metacognitive expectations can explain pathologies in which intrusive symptoms comorbidly occur with OGM and/or dissociation (Geraerts et al., 2010; Moore & Zoellner, 2007; Ono et al., 2016).
Clinicians often encounter patients who are unable or unwilling to voluntarily retrieve negative memories. OGM and dissociation is typical of this condition. A common strategy of memory therapeutics for such patients is retrieval practice and reappraisal of negative events. Prolonged Exposure and its core technique imagery exposure are the standard treatment of PTSD, which facilitate exposure to hotspots of traumatic events (Foa et al., 2007). Memory Specificity Training (MeST) involves retrieval practice of negative specific memories as well as positive specific memories. MeST has been shown to decrease depressive symptoms and eliminate its vulnerabilities (e.g., rumination) (Barry et al., 2019; Raes et al., 2009) and to decrease intrusive memories and avoidance in PTSD (Moradi et al., 2014). However, guiding patients to voluntary retrieval of negative specific memories is somewhat difficult when they exhibit fear of this process. For such patients, it may be necessary to discuss their fears of negative memory recall (i.e., anticipation or avoidance of emotional dysregulation) and update their metacognitive beliefs in advance, rather than simply asking for negative memory recall. In this regard, an assessment tool of dysfunctional meta-autobiographical memory about involuntary and voluntary negative memory would be informative for both research and clinical purposes.
Metacognitive Beliefs About Positive Memory Recall
Research has demonstrated positive memories are processed less effectively in emotional disorders (Dalgleish & Werner-Seidler, 2014; Hitchcock et al., 2017; Schacter et al., 2023; Walker et al., 2003). Metacognitive beliefs about positive memory recall may also contribute to these deficits. Positive memory recall has been suggested to help improve mood (Rusting & DeHart, 2000; Werner-Seidler & Moulds, 2012). However, underestimating the expected benefits of positive memory recall and overestimating the expected difficulty in retrieval of positive memories may attenuate voluntary retrieval.
An example of underestimating the expected benefit of positive memory recall is the anticipation of mood contrast effect. Previous studies have shown that positive memory recall evokes negative mood or fails to evoke positive mood in depressed participants (Joormann et al., 2007; Vanderlind et al., 2017; Watson et al., 2013; Werner-Seidler et al., 2017). This effect may be caused by the discrepancy between the current (depressed) self and past (ideal) self contained within positive memories. Greater anticipation of a mood contrast effect would imply lower expected benefit, resulting in early cessation of voluntary retrieval of positive memories.
In other cases, patients may underestimate the retention and retrieval potential of positive memories. Recent findings suggested that judgments of autobiographical recallability depend on fluency and personal semantics (Matsumoto, 2024; Sanson et al., 2020). Patients who have accumulated negative self-schemata (Dalgleish & Hitchcock, 2023) may feel that they are unlikely to recall positive memories based on schematic and intuitive processing. In such cases, the expected cost would be estimated to be high, leading to early cessation of voluntary retrieval of positive memories as well.
Aims of This Study
The aim of the present study is to develop a self-reported questionnaire to comprehensively understand and assess these meta-autobiographical memories, with a view to their clinical application. Fear of negative memory recall and consequent avoidance, as well as beliefs about voluntary retrieval of positive memories, is associated with clinical impairment and may interfere with treatment implementation and effectiveness. However, to date, no tools have been developed to assess meta-autobiographical memory, except for one questionnaire measuring metacognition in intrusive memory. Here we developed the Meta-Autobiographical Remembering Questionnaire (MARQ), a self-reported questionnaire comprehensively measuring maladaptive metacognitive beliefs about autobiographical remembering, and tested its reliability and validity.
Based on the findings outlined above, we aimed to extract six factors: emotion dysregulation in negative involuntary retrieval, avoidance of negative involuntary retrieval, emotion dysregulation in negative voluntary retrieval, avoidance of negative voluntary retrieval, difficulty in positive voluntary retrieval, and emotion dysregulation in positive voluntary retrieval.
Study 1 tested for structural validity and internal consistency of the MARQ. Study 2 examined the test–retest reliability. Since meta-autobiographical remembering is formed by years of experience and is unlikely to be updated in relatively short term, we expected high test–retest reliability. Study 3 examined the convergent validity using a combination of questionnaires measuring posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), metacognition on intrusive memory, dissociative experience, depressive symptoms, response to positive emotions, and thought suppression. The original MARQ was developed in Japanese, the first author’s native language. In Study 4, we translated the MARQ into English and conducted a replication study in English-speaking countries to verify whether the questionnaire could be used for these populations. In Study 5, the same set of questionnaires as in Study 3 was used to confirm whether the English version retained convergent validity.
Method
Study 1
In Study 1, we developed a novel questionnaire MARQ in Japanese and examined its structural validity and internal consistency.
Participants and Sample Size Determination
To determine the sample size, we followed COSMIN (Consensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement Instruments) checklist, which requires 7 times the number of items and at least 100 participants in examining structural validity (Mokkink et al., 2018). Within this criterion, data collection and item modification were repeated four times until a sufficient level of goodness of fit was achieved. Sample A consisted of 189 undergraduate students (107 males, 82 females, 19.23 ± 1.02 years old), Sample B consisted of 214 crowdworkers (146 males, 67 females, 44.11 ± 8.92 years old), Sample C consisted of 329 crowdworkers (212 males, 117 females, 45.57 ± 7.88 years old), and Sample D consisted of 315 crowdworkers (225 males, 89 females, 44.64 ± 8.38 years old). The crowdworkers were recruited via Yahoo!Crowdsourcing (similar to Amazon Mechanical Turk) and data collected via SurveyMonkey. All the surveys were conducted using Japanese language and all the participants were Japanese.
Collecting and Updating Items
Twenty-four candidate items were selected based on the literature review and reports obtained from patients by the first author. These include literature on avoidance and emotion regulation difficulties for negative involuntary memories (Newby & Moulds, 2010, 2011a, 2011b), avoidance and emotion regulation in negative voluntary memories (Sumner, 2012; Williams et al., 2007), and anticipated emotion evoked in voluntary memories (Matsumoto, 2024), and studies showing the mood contrast effect on positive voluntary memory (Joormann et al., 2007; Watson et al., 2013). A confirmatory factor analysis was performed following each data collection. Based on the COSMIN guideline proposed by Prinsen et al. (2018), we set CFI > 0.95 and SRMR < 0.08 as good fit indices of models. The RMSEA (< 0.06) was used as a reference because of its tendency to overestimate values when the number of items is small. Items were excluded and modified so that the six factors originally proposed were extracted. A total of 18 items were identified in the analysis of Sample C, and these items were fixed in the analysis of Sample D. To minimize confusion, this paper refers only to the final version of the questionnaire and reports the results of the confirmatory factor analysis conducted with data collected from Sample D.
MARQ-Negative
The MARQ-Negative asks respondents how they usually perceive the ‘voluntary’ or ‘involuntary’ retrieval of negative events (but not thoughts) in the past. Items listed in Table 1 (Items 1–12) were rated on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). There are 4 presumed subfactors, called (a) involuntary emotion dysregulation (i.e., emotion dysregulation in negative involuntary retrieval), (b) involuntary memory avoidance (i.e., avoidance of negative involuntary retrieval), (c) voluntary memory avoidance (i.e., avoidance of negative voluntary retrieval), and (d) voluntary emotion dysregulation (i.e., emotion dysregulation in negative voluntary retrieval). Each subfactor has three items. Participants were initially instructed that “In the course of life, people experience various negative events. Later on, they may need to recall those negative events voluntarily or these events may come to mind involuntarily. This questionnaire asks you about how you usually perceive the ‘voluntary’ or ‘involuntary’ recall of negative events in the past. Please note that when completing this questionnaire we ask you to think about ‘events’, not ‘thoughts’” and then they responded to each item.
Table 1
Meta-Autobiographical remembering questionnaire (MARQ) items, belonging factors, means, and SDs
MARQ-Positive
The MARQ-Positive measures how respondents usually perceive the ‘voluntary’ or ‘involuntary’ retrieval of positive events (but not thoughts) in the past. Items were also listed in Table 1 (Items 13–18). Participants rated each item using a 5-point scale, ranged from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). This measure consists of two subfactors, named (e) voluntary positive difficulty (i.e., difficulty in positive voluntary retrieval) and (f) voluntary positive dysregulation (i.e., emotion dysregulation in positive voluntary retrieval). Participants were instructed that “In the course of life, people experience various positive events. Later on, they may need to recall those positive events voluntarily or these events may come to mind involuntarily. This questionnaire asks you how you usually perceive the ‘voluntary’ recall of positive events in the past. Please note that when completing this questionnaire we ask you to think about ‘events’, not ‘thoughts’” and then they responded to each item.
Statistical Analysis
For all studies, analysis was implemented in Mplus (ver 8.1) and JASP. Confirmatory factor analyses employed the maximum likelihood method in Mplus, while other analyses were conducted using JASP. The factor structures we assumed were illustrated in Fig. 1. First, we examined models in which 4 negative memory factors (Model A) and 2 positive memory factors (Model B) are considered as separate scales. This distinction is reasonable because MARQ-negative and MARQ-positive have different lead sentences. Second, we examined a six-factor model (Model C) that integrated MARQ-negative and MARQ-positive factors. These factors may not be unrelated, as we can assume that individuals respond negatively (or positively) to both negative and positive items. Third, a higher-order factor for 4 negative memory factors and a higher-order factor for 2 positive memory factors are introduced to test the model (Model D), which assumes a correlation between the higher-order factors. We expected that the above examination would provide statistical evidence for scale scores of each 6 factor and Negative and Positive high-order factors.
Fig. 1
Potential factor structures examining in Study 1. Note Inv emo dys = Involuntary emotion dysregulation; Inv mem avo = Involuntary memory avoidance; Vol mem avo = Voluntary memory avoidance; Vol emo dys = Voluntary emotion dysregulation; Vol pos dif = Voluntary positive difficulty; Vol pos dys = Voluntary positive dysregulation. Error terms were omitted in the figure
×
Results
Item Analysis
Table 1 shows descriptive statistics and distributions. No items were found to indicate ceiling and floor effects with mean ± 1 SD exceeding the theoretical minimum (1) and maximum (5) range.
Structural Validity
Model fit indices are summarized in Table 2. Models A and B had good fit indices (CFIs > 0.950, SRMR < 0.08). Models C and D had slightly worse but permissible fitness of model compared to Models A and B. Factor loadings for each item in Models A and B are shown in Table 3, where all items loaded sufficiently (β > 0.62) for each destinated factor.
Table 2
Potential models and fit indices in Japanese and English versions of meta-autobiographical remembering questionnaire (MARQ)
Table 3
Factor loading in Models A and B and inter-factor correlations
Study 1 demonstrated good structural validity and internal consistency of the MARQ Japanese version. Results of model fit comparisons indicated that adding the MARQ-negative and MARQ-positive independently in the model provided the best fit, but a single model that integrated these factors and the higher-order factor model were also acceptable.
Study 2
In Study 2, we examined the test–retest reliability of the Japanese version of the MARQ.
Participants and Procedure
The COSMIN checklist suggests that a minimum of 50 participants is required for reliability studies, assuming ICC (intraclass correlation coefficients) = 0.80. We recruited participants to meet this criterion. Seventy-three undergraduate students (35 males, 38 females, 19.58 ± 3.22 years old at Time 1) completed the MARQ twice with an intervening period of one month.
Results and Brief Discussion
Using a two-way random effects, absolute agreement, single rater/measurement model (Koo & Li, 2016), ICC between MARQ scores at baseline and 1 month later were calculated. We used an R package “irr” for the calculation. Results indicated good test–retest reliability for all six factors: negative involuntary retrieval (ICC (2, 1) = 0.86, p < 0.001, 95%CI [0.79, 0.91]), avoidance of negative involuntary retrieval (ICC (2, 1) = 0.85, p < 0.001, 95%CI [0.73, 0.91]), avoidance of negative voluntary retrieval (ICC (2, 1) = 0.85, p < 0.001, 95%CI [0.76, 0.90]), emotion dysregulation in negative voluntary retrieval (ICC (2, 1) = 0.79, p < 0.001, 95%CI [0.69, 0.87]), difficulty in positive voluntary retrieval (ICC (2, 1) = 0.80, p < 0.001, 95%CI [0.69, 0.87]), emotion dysregulation in positive voluntary retrieval (ICC (2, 1) = 0.79, p < 0.001, 95%CI [0.68, 0.87]). Two high-order factors, negative factor (ICC (2, 1) = 0.84, p < 0.001, 95%CI [0.76, 0.90]) and positive factor (ICC (2, 1) = 0.81, p < 0.001, 95%CI [0.70, 0.89]) also demonstrated good test–retest reliability. Together with the internal consistency of the subscales indicated in Study 1, the reliability of the MARQ was confirmed.
Study 3
The aim of Study 3 was to test the convergent validity. To this end, we used questionnaires that would correlate with or have selective correlations to discriminate the factors of the Japanese version of the MARQ.
Participants
As many correlations are considered at once, the target effect size cannot be defined. We aimed to detect at least moderate correlations. The sample size required to detect a moderate correlation (r = 0.30) and to achieve 80% power at α = 0.05 (two-tailed) is N = 84. We conservatively chose to recruit more participants. Sample A consisted of 151 crowdworkers (105 males, 46 females, 39.83 ± 7.82 years old) and Sample B consisted of 157 crowdworkers (99 males, 58 females, 43.19 ± 9.20 years old). Data was obtained from participants in Sample A on the MARQ and PCL-5, while participants from Sample B completed all questionnaires except the PCL-5.
Questionnaires
The reasons for selecting the criterion-related measures and the associated predictions are as follows:
(a)
PCL-5
PCL-5 (PTSD Checklist for DSM-5; Weathers et al., 2013) measures post-traumatic stress symptoms according to DSM-5. This scale consists of 20 items with four subordinate factors: re-experiencing (i.e., intrusion), avoidance, negative alterations in cognition and mood, and hyperarousal. Participants rate how often they experience each symptom in the last month as a result of a stressful event using a 5-point scale, ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very). Because prior experiences form current beliefs and predictions (Kube et al., 2020), in particular traumatic experiences drastically change and generalize beliefs about the self, others, and the world (Brown et al., 2019), it is also likely to affect more generalized beliefs about negative autobiographical remembering. Trauma-induced emotional and physical reactivity (i.e., hyperarousal symptoms) may form beliefs of emotional dysregulation in negative involuntary memory in general (Ehlers & Steil, 1995) Avoidance of trauma intrusions may also generalize to avoidance of negative involuntary memory in general (Geraerts et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2007). Based on a traumatic experience as a starting point, emotional dysregulation and avoidance of negative involuntary memories should be correlated (Ehlers & Steil, 1995). However, in light of the generalization process, hyperarousal would be closely related to emotional dysregulation in negative involuntary memories (Frewen et al., 2006; Lanius et al., 2006), and avoidance would be closely related to avoidance in negative involuntary memories (Ehlers & Steil, 1995; Steil & Ehlers, 2000). Thus, we predicted that significant positive associations between hyperarousal on the PCL-5 and involuntary emotional dysregulation and between the PCL-5 avoidance and involuntary memory avoidance would remain after controlling for both MARQ factors. By contrast, we predicted that correlations between the PCL-5 hyperarousal and involuntary memory avoidance and between the PCL-5 avoidance and involuntary emotion dysregulation would be not significant after controlling for both MARQ factors. In addition, higher PCL-5 re-experiencing implies a high frequency of unwanted intrusive memory experiences, which would lead to the formation of involuntary emotion dysregulation and involuntary memory avoidance based on intrusive experiences (Ehlers & Clark, 2000). Thus, we predicted that PCL-5 re-experiencing would be positively associated with both of involuntary factors. Furthermore, since expected benefits and costs for voluntary memory would be formed based on those for involuntary memory (Schönfeld & Ehlers, 2006), we predicted that PCL-5 would correlate more weakly but significantly with both voluntary factors than with involuntary factors. Specifically, we expected significant correlations between PCL-5 hyperarousal and voluntary emotion dysregulation, but the correlations would be nonsignificant after controlling for involuntary emotion dysregulation. Similarly, we expected significant correlations between PCL-5 avoidance and voluntary memory avoidance, but the correlations would be nonsignificant after controlling for involuntary memory avoidance.
(b)
RIQ Short Version
The RIQ (Response to Intrusion Questionnaire; Clohessy & Ehlers, 1999; Japanese version: Matsumoto, unpublished) assesses how individuals respond to involuntary memories of traumatic events. The short version of this questionnaire includes 12 items and has three subscales: thought suppression (e.g., I try to push them out of my mind), rumination (e.g., I think about why the event happened to me), and numbing (e.g., I numb my feelings). Participants rate each item on a scale ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (always). The strength of cognitive-emotional coping for involuntary memory would represent a fear of involuntary memories and a desire for avoidance (Clohessy & Ehlers, 1999). Thus, RIQ was predicted to positively correlate with both MARQ involuntary factors. The Numbing factor was predicted to be strongly related to MARQ involuntary emotion dysregulation, especially because it reflects emotional control over involuntary memory. Furthermore, based on the same reasoning for the prediction of PCL-5, we predicted that the RIQ would correlate more weakly but significantly with both voluntary factors than with involuntary (Schönfeld & Ehlers, 2006). Specifically, we expected that RIQ would be correlated with voluntary emotion dysregulation/voluntary memory avoidance, but the correlations would be nonsignificant after controlling for involuntary emotion dysregulation/involuntary memory avoidance.
(c)
DES-II
The DES-II (Dissociative Experiences Scale; Bernstein & Putnam, 1986; Japanese version: Tanabe, 1994) is a 28-items questionnaire measuring trait tendency of dissociation. Participants answer how well they experience each dissociative manner using a scale ranging from 0% (never) to 100% (always). This questionnaire has three subscales: amnesia, depersonalization, and absorption. The propensity for dissociative experiences is associated with high frequency of intrusive memories and emotional responses during their encoding (Hagenaars & Krans, 2011). Dissociation is an aversive coping strategy for strong negative emotions associated with experiences (Felmingham et al., 2008; Matsumoto & Kawaguchi, 2020) and suppression of voluntary memory may produce dissociative amnesia (Marsh et al., 2025). In light of the above, we predicted that DES-II would be positively correlated to an equal degree with all negative memory factors.
(d)
QIDS
The QIDS (Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology; Rush et al., 2003 Japanese version: Fujisawa et al., 2010) is a self-reported scale to measure depressive symptom severity. This scale consists of 16 items and requests to rate current symptoms, from 0 to 3 in terms of symptom persistence. We predicted that the QIDS would be positively associated with all negative and positive memory factors because we posited that the MARQ measures maladaptive meta-autobiographical remembering (Dalgleish & Werner-Seidler, 2014; Starr & Moulds, 2006; Williams & Moulds, 2008).
(e)
RPA
The RPA (Response to Positive Affect; Feldman et al., 2008 Japanese version: Koda et al., in prep) is a self-report questionnaire assessing cognitive responses to positive affective states. This measure consists of 17 items, and for each item, participants rate on a 4-point scale, ranging from 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always). The RPA constitutes three sub-factors, named Dampening, Self-focused positive rumination, and Emotion-focused positive rumination. Dampening (e.g., Think ‘‘My streak of luck is going to end soon’’) represents an anticipatory thought that the positive state will not last. We predicted that dampening would be positively associated with MARQ voluntary positive dysregulation, because this factor reflects dampening-like thoughts in voluntary retrieval. Self-focused positive rumination (e.g., Think ‘‘I am achieving everything’’) and Emotion-focused positive rumination (e.g., Think about how happy you feel) measure how much one tends to focus on positive aspects of themselves. We predicted that these factors would be negatively associated with MARQ voluntary positive difficulty, which measures tendency to think that positive memories will not be recallable (Dalgleish & Hitchcock, 2023).
(f)
WBSI
The WBSI (White Bear Suppression Inventory; Wegner & Zanakos, 1994; Japanese version: Clark, 2006) assesses the individual differences in thought suppression. This questionnaire consists of 15 items, which are rated on a 5-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Based on the established theory that thought suppression is regarded as a control strategy to prevent emotional reactions associated with involuntary negative memories (Wenzlaff & Wegner, 2000), we predicted that the WBSI would correlate with MARQ involuntary emotion dysregulation and MARQ involuntary memory avoidance factors.
Results and Brief Discussion
Table 4 shows the correlations between the Japanese version of the MARQ and convergent validity scales. For the PCL-5, the total score and all subordinate factors showed significant positive correlations with all four of the MARQ-Negative factors. In terms of meta-cognitive beliefs about involuntary memory retrieval, partial correlations between PCL-5 hyperarousal and MARQ involuntary emotion dysregulation (pr = 0.39, p < 0.001) and between PCL-5 avoidance and MARQ involuntary memory avoidance (pr = 0.47, p < 0.001) were still significant when controlling for the other respective MARQ involuntary memory factors, as predicted. By contrast and also in line with predictions, the partial correlation between PCL-5 hyperarousal and MARQ involuntary memory avoidance was no longer significant (pr = 0.14, p = 0.08) when MARQ involuntary emotion dysregulation was controlled for. However, the partial correlation between PCL-5 avoidance and MARQ involuntary emotion dysregulation remained significant after controlling for MARQ involuntary memory avoidance (pr = 0.29, p < 0.001), but the effect size was small. These findings support the close relationship between posttraumatic hyperarousal and emotion dysregulation in involuntary memory (Frewen et al., 2006) and between posttraumatic symptoms of avoidance and avoidance in involuntary memory (Ehlers & Steil, 1995).
Table 4
Correlations between MARQ Japanese version and convergent validity scales
In terms of beliefs about voluntary memory retrieval, as expected, the correlation between MARQ voluntary memory avoidance and PCL-5 avoidance was significant (r = 0.35, p < 0.001) but no longer significant when MARQ involuntary memory avoidance was controlled for (pr = 0.15, p = 0.064). Similarly, the correlation between MARQ voluntary emotion dysregulation and PCL-5 hyperarousal was significant (r = 0.37, p < 0.001), but became nonsignificant when MARQ involuntary emotion dysregulation was controlled for (pr = 0.07, p = 0.37). Providing evidence to support the interplay between involuntary and voluntary memory processes and posttraumatic symptoms. Overall, these results supported our hypotheses that meta-cognitive beliefs about negative autobiographical memories demonstrate close yet differential relationships between posttraumatic symptoms of hyperarousal and avoidance and a close relationship with reexperiencing.
In support of our expectation that the strength of emotional-coping responses for involuntary memory (RIQ) would be associated with meta-cognitive beliefs about emotional dysregulation and avoidance in negative autobiographical memory, the RIQ and its subordinate factors were moderately to strongly significantly correlated with all four factors of the MARQ-Negative. As predicted, the correlation between the RIQ and MARQ voluntary emotion dysregulation was no longer significant when MARQ involuntary emotion dysregulation was partialled out (pr = 0.05, p = 0.56). Similarly, the correlation between the RIQ and MARQ voluntary memory avoidance was no longer significant when MARQ involuntary memory avoidance was controlled for (pr = 0.07, p = 0.40). These results supported our hypotheses that the RIQ demonstrates good convergent validity with the MARQ-Negative and that beliefs about involuntary memory partially account for relationships between responses to intrusive memories and meta-cognitive beliefs about voluntary negative autobiographical memories.
As predicted, the DES-II total score and three subscale scores correlated with MARQ involuntary emotion dysregulation, involuntary memory avoidance, and voluntary emotion dysregulation, but contrary to predictions, did not significantly correlate with voluntary memory avoidance. These findings provide evidence support convergence between trait dissociation and meta-cognitive beliefs about negative autobiographical memories, except for beliefs about avoidance of voluntary negative memories.
The QIDS was positively associated with all six negative and positive memory factors, as predicted. Demonstrating convergent validity between a measure of depressive symptom severity and meta-cognitive beliefs about involuntary and voluntary autobiographical memory.
In terms of responses to positive affect, RPA dampening was positively correlated with MARQ voluntary positive dysregulation. By contrast, RPA self-focus and emotion-focus were negatively correlated with MARQ voluntary positive difficulty. These findings were consistent with our hypothesis and provides evidence for the discriminant validity between the two positive memory factors.
The WBSI was positively associated with MARQ involuntary emotion dysregulation and involuntary memory avoidance factors, in line with hypotheses that thought suppression is regarded as a coping response can be utilized to control the emotions associated with the retrieval of involuntary negative memories.
These results generally supported the convergent validity of the MARQ Negative and Positive with measures of symptoms of emotional disorder and cognitive and emotional processing. The exception was MARQ voluntary memory avoidance, which showed no significant correlation with the trait tendency of dissociation, only partially supporting convergent validity.
Study 4
In Study 4, we developed an English version of the MARQ to make it available internationally. We then examined the structural validity and internal consistency.
Participants and Procedure
The same criteria as in Study 1 were used for the sample size design. Two-hundred three crowdworkers residing in the UK (103 males, 100 females, 41.10, ± 12.95 years old) proficient in English well were recruited via Prolific. They completed an English version of the MARQ.
Development of English Version
The first author translated the Japanese version into English. Next, the second author, who is a native speaker, checked whether the expressions are familiar to English speakers. The authors discussed to update and agree upon a translated version (Table 1).
Results and Brief Discussion
Item analysis revealed no ceiling effects. However, different from the Japanese version, three items in the MARQ-Positive factors (Items 14, 15, and 18) indicated floor effects (Table 1). The mean scores of the Japanese and English versions cannot be directly compared because it could be affected by various factors such as age, gender, race, and sampling methods. Nevertheless, the substantial difference in MARQ-Positive items and the floor effect observed only in the English version are worth considering in terms of cultural differences in the function of autobiographical memory (Maki et al., 2015). Individuals in WEIRD countries, compared to those in Asia, exhibit a positivity bias in autobiographical memory and more frequently use autobiographical memory for emotion regulation (Wang, 2016). This tendency to use positive memories for emotion regulation may be emerged in the low scores (i.e., believing in that positive memories are valuable for sharing with others and beneficial for emotion regulation) for MARQ-Positive in the English version with the UK sample.
Comparable to the Japanese version, confirmatory factor analysis using maximum likelihood method demonstrated good fit indices for Models A and B (Table 2). Model C also showed a good fit to data. Model D slightly underperformed the CFI criteria, but showed an acceptable fit. The internal consistency of each factor was also good: Involuntary emotion dysregulation (α = 0.83), involuntary memory avoidance (α = 0.75), Voluntary memory avoidance (α = 0.86), Voluntary emotion dysregulation (α = 0.90), Voluntary positive difficulty (α = 0.71), and Voluntary positive dysregulation (α = 0.80). Thus, we found that the MARQ English version, along with the Japanese version, has sufficient structural validity and internal consistency.
Study 5
Study 5 aimed to test the convergent validity of the English version of the MARQ. We used almost similar set of questionnaires as Study 3, with the exception of the PCL-5, which could not be used for ethical reasons. This is because answering the PCL-5 can trigger trauma, and it is difficult to provide aftercare in the case of online surveys.
Participants
The same criteria as in Study 3 were used for the sample size design. One-hundred fifty participants (75 males, 75 females, 39.71 ± 13.41) recruited in the UK via Prolific consented to participate in the study. Following attentional checks valid data was obtained from 147 participants was used for analysis.
Questionnaires
The questionnaires included the MARQ negative and positive, RIQ (α = 0.76), DES-II (α = 0.96), QIDS-J (α = 0.78), RPA (α = 0.80), WBSI (α = 0.93). Three attentional check questions such as “Please respond “Almost always” to this question” were included the survey to check satisficing behavior. Participants who answered this item incorrectly were excluded from the analysis.
Results and Brief Discussion
We tested same hypotheses as outlined in study 3 regarding the convergent validity of the MARQ. Therefore, the results of study 5 will be discussed relative to findings reported in study 3 for Japanese version of the MARQ. Table 5 shows the correlations between the English version of the MARQ and convergent validity scales. The RIQ and its subordinate factors were moderately positively correlated with all 4 factors of the MARQ-Negative. Demonstrating good convergent validity between a measure of intrusive responding and the MARQ-Negative. The correlation between the RIQ and MARQ voluntary memory avoidance was no longer significant when MARQ involuntary memory avoidance was controlled for (pr = 0.11, p = 0.21). These results replicated the findings in the Japanese version. However, unlike the Japanese version, the correlation between the RIQ and MARQ voluntary emotion dysregulation remained significant when MARQ involuntary emotion dysregulation was controlled for (pr = 0.31, p < 0.001).
Table 5
Correlations between MARQ English version and convergent validity scales
The DES-II and its subordinate factors were positively correlated with all negative memory factors. Different from the Japanese version, but consistent with the original prediction, the DES-II also showed significant correlations with MARQ voluntary memory avoidance. Demonstrating consistent convergent validity between a trait measure of dissociation and the MARQ-Negative across two distinct participant samples.
The QIDS was positively correlated with all MARQ negative and positive memory factors, replicating the results of the Japanese version. Demonstrating consistent convergent validity between a measure of depressive symptom severity and the MARQ-Negative and Positive across two distinct participant samples.
The RPA dampening was positively correlated with MARQ voluntary positive dysregulation, while RPA self-focus and emotion-focus were negatively correlated with voluntary positive difficulty, which were consistent with the Japanese version. Demonstrating consistent convergent validity between a measure of positive affect and the MARQ-Positive factors. Surprisingly, dampening also showed a positive correlation with MARQ voluntary positive difficulty, and self-focus and emotion-focus showed a negative correlation with MARQ voluntary positive dysregulation. These results cast doubt on the discriminative validity of the two positive memory factors, contrary to the findings in the Japanese version.
The WBSI was positively correlated with MARQ involuntary emotion dysregulation and involuntary memory avoidance, as predicted and in line with the Japanese version. Demonstrating good convergent validity with a measure of thought suppression and MARQ-Negative involuntary factors.
In summary, the English version of the MARQ generally replicated the findings of the Japanese version, demonstrating good convergent validity with a measure of depressive symptom severity and measures of cognitive and emotional processing. The discriminative validity of involuntary emotion regulation and voluntary emotion regulation, and voluntary positive difficulty and voluntary positive dysregulation needs further validation.
General Discussion
To date, no questionnaire has been developed to comprehensively measure meta-autobiographical remembering. We have developed a novel questionnaire (MARQ) that measures emotion dysregulation in negative involuntary retrieval, avoidance of negative involuntary retrieval, emotion dysregulation in negative voluntary retrieval, avoidance of negative voluntary retrieval, difficulty in positive voluntary retrieval, and emotion dysregulation in positive voluntary retrieval. The reliability and validity of the MARQ were examined in both Japanese and English versions. The MARQ had excellent structural validity across the Japanese and English versions. The Japanese version of the scale showed adequate internal consistency and test–retest reliability, and the English version also showed good internal consistency. Criterion-related validity was well supported, with some exceptions.
Inter-factor correlations were particularly high for involuntary emotion dysregulation and voluntary emotion dysregulation. Similarly, moderate inter-factor correlations were found between involuntary memory avoidance and voluntary memory avoidance. These results are consistent with our predictions and suggest that people do not differentiate between involuntary and voluntary memories in prediction of emotional arousal and its avoidance. Metacognitive beliefs that involuntary negative memories lead to uncontrollable negative emotions and thoughts and therefore should be avoided in order to regulate mood can be generalized to voluntary memories. This is because laypeople do not pay attention to the difference between involuntary and voluntary memory (Sanson et al., 2023).
While involuntary emotion dysregulation showed a stronger association with the RIQ in the Japanese version, the English version demonstrated a stronger correlation between voluntary emotion dysregulation and the RIQ. This inconsistency suggests that participants may not clearly differentiate between involuntary and voluntary emotional dysregulation in negative memories. Contrary to our initial prediction, there was no significant distinction between the two, at least for laypeople, and the differing degrees of correlation with MARQ may have largely resulted from measurement error.
However, growing evidence indicate that involuntary and voluntary memories can arise from both overlapping and distinct neural and psychophysiological substrates (Brewin et al., 2010; Hall et al., 2008, 2014). In addition, voluntary memory allows for greater cognitive control during retrieval than involuntary memory (Watson et al., 2013). Therefore, in terms of scientific literature, applying emotion dysregulation and avoidance in involuntary memory to voluntary memory would be wrong. The commonality and individuality of metacognitions about negative involuntary and voluntary memory may be one indicator of individuals’ knowledge on memory retrieval. In clinical context, the differentiation between metacognitions about involuntary and voluntary memory would be helpful for patients because it prevents generalization across involuntary and voluntary memory. Thus, the MARQ can measure metacognitive fusion for negative involuntary and voluntary memories and has a potential clinical usefulness.
Metacognitive beliefs about positive voluntary memory, which is measured by the MARQ-Positive, may help to elucidate our understanding of the reduced mood incongruency effect and the occurrence of mood contrast effects in relation to depression. These phenomena have been shown in basic research (Joormann et al., 2007; Rusting & DeHart, 2000), but examining these effects requires experimental manipulation, potentially limiting further research into these effects in clinical populations or their identification within treatment settings. The MARQ-Positive can serve as a brief self-report tool which may be used more easily to assess metacognitive dysfunction associated with positive memory retrieval in these settings.
Study 3 found that MARQ-Positive is associated not only with depressive symptoms but also with PTSS. This result suggests that the reduction in the mood incongruent effect and the emergence of the mood contrast effect, which have been found as characteristics of depression, may also apply to PTSD. Individuals with PTSD or PTSS struggle to recall positive memories as well as negative memories (Moore & Zoellner, 2007; Ono et al., 2016). This deficit in positive memory recall in PTSD hinders the therapeutic effectiveness of exposure therapy (Bryant et al., 2007). Researchers have shown that modifying such abnormalities in positive memory processing and improving memory specificity in PTSD can help to alleviate symptoms (Bryant et al., 2025; Contractor et al., 2018). In line with these findings, MARQ-Positive may serve as a potential treatment target for improving PTSS.
All MARQ factors measure the tendency to negatively estimate emotions related to memory recall, which were associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms and PTSS. This suggests that depressive symptoms and PTSS perceive higher expected costs and lower expected benefits with regard to autobiographical remembering. While these connections might suggest that such individuals experience actually heightened distress linked to memory recall, it could also reflect a tendency to predict emotions more negatively than they ultimately experience.
Metacognitive beliefs form future predictions in combination with current internal and external environmental factors. Previous studies revealed that individuals with depression exhibit a negative bias in future thinking (Hallford & Sharma, 2019; Hallford et al., 2020). Similarly, individuals with depression also show a negative bias in affective forecasting, the prediction of future emotions (Hoerger et al., 2012; Thompson et al., 2017). Moreover, expected low recallability autobiographical memories and negative emotion evoked by these recalls prevent people from devoting effort to retrieval, leading to OGM (Matsumoto, 2024).
A comprehensive understanding of the relationship between psychiatric symptoms and abnormalities in autobiographical remembering can be framed in terms of the expected benefits and costs of memory retrieval. Avoiding the expected cost of negative emotions related to memory retrieval could lead to negative OGM. Similarly, avoidance and suppression of intrusive memories may stem from emotional strain they cause. Underestimating the expected benefits of positive emotions by memory recall would be involved in positive OGM, reduced mood incongruent recall, and the prediction of the mood contrast effect. MARQ may capture these biases linked to psychiatric symptoms.
There were notable differences between the Japanese and English versions of MARQ. In the English version, a floor effect was observed in several MARQ-Positive items. This suggests that participants in the UK higher value on positive memory recall for emotion regulation and personal communication. In contrast, in Asian cultures, including Japan, autobiographical memory is used less frequently for emotion regulation compared to WEIRD countries (Wang, 2016). This may be due to interdependent view of the self in Asian cultures, where personal identity, relationships, and happiness are defined by social orders such as kinship (Alea & Wang, 2015; Uchida & Kitayama, 2009). As a result, reliance on autobiographical memory may be less necessary (Alea & Wang, 2015).
In the Japanese version, no significant correlations were found between RPA dampening and MARQ voluntary positive difficulty or between RPA self-focus and MARQ voluntary emotion dysregulation, whereas these correlations were significant and relatively strong in the English version. For Japanese participants, even healthy individuals may underestimate their positive memory function. By contrast, for the UK sample, low estimation of positive memory function may specifically reflect emotional vulnerability. Future research should further explore cultural differences in the MARQ-Positive factors using a well-controlled sample.
DES-II correlated with MARQ voluntary avoidance in the English version but showed no significant correlation in the Japanese version. Further tests are needed to determine whether this finding is replicable, or influenced by cultural differences.
In summary, the present study contributes to the literature in that (a) the article extends our understanding of maladaptive metacognitive prediction and avoidance demonstrated by intrusive memory research to negative involuntary memory in general, (b) suggests that these metacognitions may generalize to negative voluntary memory, (c) synthesizes mood-incongruent recall and mood contrast effect as a construct called positive meta-autobiographical memory, and (d) developed a questionnaire to assess these meta-autobiographical memories.
Researchers and clinicians can use the MARQ to measure individual differences in meta-autobiographical memory according to their objectives and interests. All of the models A to D examined in this study showed acceptable levels of fit, which allows for a wide range of uses. They can use the 12 items and sub-factors of MARQ-Negative in accordance with Model A, or the 6 items and sub-factors of MARQ-Positive in accordance with Model B. Based on the higher-order factors of Model D, the total scores for MARQ-Negative and MARQ-Positive can be also used.
Limitations and Future Directions
We acknowledge several limitations involved in this study. First, the voluntary memory avoidance factor needs to be further validated, for example in relation to voluntary memory tasks. Second, the English version has not yet been examined in relation to the PTSS or test–retest reliability. Third, the concordance between meta-level cognition as measured by the MARQ and object-level behavior as measured by autobiographical memory tasks needs to be verified. Finally, most of the present study was conducted on crowd samples. To enhance clinical usefulness, data collection should be conducted further with patient groups. In particular, it is necessary to examine how interventions targeting memories and exposure alter meta-autobiographical remembering in clinical samples. Such an examination may provide evidence for the working mechanisms of memory therapeutics and lead to further optimization of the treatment options.
In addition to this, future research should focus on the longitudinal reciprocal relationships between the MARQ factors. We originally hypothesize that metacognitions in negative involuntary memory would generalize to voluntary memory, a hypothesis that requires testing through longitudinal studies. Furthermore, it would be worthwhile to examine whether MARQ-Positive and MARQ-Negative scores leads to an increase in MARQ-Positive scores. The functional avoidance hypothesis of OGM assumes that avoidance of retrieving negative and traumatic memories generalizes to positive memory retrieval (Williams et al., 2007). Perhaps this generalization may occur at meta-level (i.e., reduced retrieval effort due to the expected cost of memory retrieval) rather than at object-level (i.e., memory availability itself). If so, an influence from MARQ-Negative to MARQ-Positive might be observable.
Modifying individuals’ metacognitions about emotions related to memory retrieval in an adaptive way may help participants gain insight into how their autobiographical memory functions, this may facilitate their ability to engage with exposure-based treatments leading increased exposure to negative memories and positive memories, and improve treatment outcomes. This notion is also partially proposed in the cognitive theory of PTSD (Ehlers & Clark, 2000), which argues that negative cognitions of intrusive memories and avoidance strategies for traumatic events lead to the maintenance of PTSS. Therefore, cognitive therapy for PTSD aims to update negative cognitions of intrusive memories and cease avoidance of traumatic experiences. Updating of negative cognitions for intrusive memories has also been transferred to experimental settings as a cognitive bias modification (Newby & Ehlers, 2014). The modification of metacognitions about voluntary memory may also lead to the retrieval of negative memories and reappraisal of these memories. Retrieval practice of voluntary negative memories (Raes et al., 2009) may contribute to these metacognitive changes through the experience. Furthermore, the modification of metacognitions about positive memories may facilitate the retention and retrieval of positive memories, which may lead to the formation and updating of a positive self (Dalgleish & Hitchcock, 2023; Moscovitch et al., 2023). Thus, the MARQ can contribute to assessment of these treatment processes within transdiagnostic approaches that regard meta-autobiographical remembering as a common pathway to recovery.
Conclusion
We developed a novel questionnaire measuring metacognitive beliefs about involuntary and voluntary memories in Japanese and English. The MARQ-Negative measures metacognitive beliefs about negative involuntary and voluntary memories in terms of emotion dysregulation and avoidance. These factors are useful for elucidating meta-autobiographical remembering mechanisms underlying the occurrence and persistence of intrusive memory and OGM. The MARQ-Positive can measure metacognitive beliefs about positive memory recall difficulties and emotion dysregulation. These components provide a simple assessment of attenuated positive memory recall and reduced benefits from positive memory recall. Across all factors, higher estimates of expected costs and lower estimates of expected benefits of autobiographical remembering were associated with depressive symptoms and PTSS. These findings suggest that meta-autobiographical remembering is implicated in disruption of autobiographical memory processing in emotional disorders and could generate new treatment and process research targeting meta-autobiographical remembering.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Prof. Anke Ehlers, Dr. Satoru Kiire, and research assistants Mako Komatsu and Mayuko Naduka for their assistance.
Declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical Approval
All studies were conducted under the approval of the ethics committee in Faculty of Arts, Shinshu University. All procedures performed in this study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
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Meta-autobiographical Remembering Questionnaire (MARQ): Metacognitive Beliefs About Voluntary and Involuntary Negative and Positive Autobiographical Memories
